Inferior vena cava filter

Editor in Chief: Mohammad Arabi, M.D, FRCR [mailto:marabi2004@hotmail.com]

Overview
An inferior vena cava filter, is a medical device that is implanted into the inferior vena cava to prevent pulmonary emboli (PEs). IVC filters are used in case of contraindication to anticoagulation, failure of anticoagulation or complication to anticoagulation in patients who have a venous thromboembolism disease or as a prophylactic measure for patients with high risk of pulmonary embolism.

Indications for use
Most filters are placed under one of the following indications:
 * Classic: In the presence of deep vein thrombosis and/or pulmonary embolism with
 * Absolute contraindication to anticoagulation.
 * Complication of anticoagulation.
 * Progression of the Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or recurrence of the pulmonary emboli (PE) despite adequate anticoagulation.


 * Relative: In the presence of DVT / PE with
 * Large free floating thrombus in the IVC or the iliofemoral veins.
 * Patients with limited cardiac reserve.
 * Non-compliant patients.


 * Prophylactic: In the absence of DVT and PE
 * Major trauma.
 * Before surgery on a patient at high risk of developing DVT / PE.

Placement
IVC filters are placed endovascularly, meaning that they are inserted via the blood vessels. Historically, IVC filters were placed surgically, but as designs changed, they could be introduced through a thin tube or catheter via percutaneous access to the venous system which can be obtained either through the femoral vein (the large vein in the groin), the internal jugular vein (the large vein in the neck.) or via the arm veins with one design. Choice of route depends mainly on the amount and location of blood clot within the venous system. To place the filter, a catheter is first directed into the IVC through the venous access using fluoroscopic guidance, followed by injection of iodinated contrast material or carbon dioxide in order to define the anatomy and caliber of the cava and to determine the level of the lowest renal vein, then the filter is introduced through the introduction sheath and deployed into the desired location, usually just below the junction of the IVC and the lowest renal vein. Alternatively, the filter can be deployed at bedside using intra vascular ultrasound guidance to evaluate the cava and determine the level of the renal veins.

Review of prior cross-sectional imaging or a venogram of the IVC is essential before deploying the filter to assess for potential anatomic variations, thrombi within the IVC, or areas of stenoses, as well as to estimate the diameter of the IVC. The size of the IVC may affect which filter is deployed, as some (such as the Bird's Nest filter) are approved to accommodate cavas larger than 28 mm. There are situations where the filter is placed above the renal veins (e.g. pregnant patients or women of childbearing age, renal or gonadal vein thromboses, etc.). Also, if there is duplication of the IVC, the filter is placed above the confluence of the two IVCs or a filter can be placed within each IVC.

Complications

 * Puncture site hematoma or venous thrombosis
 * Incorrect deployment: This may require retrieval of the device
 * Malpositioning
 * Incorrect sizing with subsequent filter embolization
 * Filter tilt
 * Failure to open completely
 * Delayed complications:
 * IVC thrombosis in about 5-10%
 * Recurrence of PE in 5-7%
 * IVC perforation
 * Caudal (towards the iliac veins), or cranial (towards the heart) migration

===Society of Interventional Radiology Standards of Practice Committee Classification of Complications by Outcome ===

Minor Complications

 * 1) No therapy, no consequence.
 * 2) Nominal therapy, no consequence; includes overnight admission for observation only.

Major Complications

 * 1) Require therapy, minor hospitalization (<48 hours).
 * 2) Require major therapy, unplanned increase in level of care, prolonged hospitalization (>48 hours).
 * 3) Permanent adverse sequelae.
 * 4) Death.

Retrieval
Most IVC filters are permanent. However, Retrievable filters are now available for use. These "retrievable" filters are designed in a way that they can be removed from the body within certain period of time, most likely through the Jugular vein. As filters become gradually embedded in the IVC wall, filter retrieval is considered suitable in the first few weeks following implantation to reduce the risk of vessel injury. Newer designs can now be left in place for prolonged periods and retrievals after a year are now being reported. These filters include the ALN, Option, G2 Express, Tulip and Celect filters.

IVC filter brands
(In alphabetical order)


 * B Braun Tempofilter IVC filter (retrievable)
 * B Braun VenaTech LGM IVC filter
 * B Braun VenaTech LP IVC filter
 * Bard G2 IVC filter
 * Bard Recovery IVC filter (retrievable) (no longer sold)
 * Boston Greenfield IVC filter
 * Cook Birds Nest IVC filter
 * Cook Celect IVC filter (retrievable)
 * Cook Gunther Tulip IVC filter (retrievable)
 * Cordis OptEase IVC filter (retrievable)
 * Cordis TrapEase IVC filter
 * Mobin-Uddin Umbrella IVC filter (no longer sold)
 * Pyramed ALN IVC filter (retrievable)
 * Rex Medical Option IVC filter (retrievable) (in clinical trials)
 * Simon Nitinol IVC filter
 * Vena-Tech IVC filter

Video of IVC Filter Deployment


Additional Resources
Hansson PO, Welin L, Tibblin G, Eriksson H Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in the general population The Study of Men Born in 1913 Arch Intern Med Aug 11-25 1997;157(15):1665-70

Pacouret G, Alison D, Pottier JM, et al Free-floating thrombus and embolic risk in patients with angiographically confirmed proximal deep venous thrombosis A prospective study Arch Intern Med Feb 10 1997;157(3):305-8

Moore FD Jr, Osteen RT, Karp DD, et al Anticoagulants, venous thromboembolism, and the cancer patient Arch Surg Apr 1981;116(4):405-7

Gray RR, Sadler DJ, Shulman L, et al Should anticoagulant therapy be stopped or reversed before venous intervention? Can Assoc Radiol J Oct 1999;50(5):306-9

Athanasoulis CA, Kaufman JA, Halpern EF, et al Inferior vena caval filters: review of a 26-year single-center clinical experience Radiology Jul 2000;216(1):54-66

Greenfield LJ, McCurdy JR, Brown PP, Elkins RC A new intracaval filter permitting continued flow and resolution of emboli Surgery Apr 1973;73(4):599-606

Tadavarthy SM, Castaneda-Zuniga W, Salomonowitz E, et al Kimray-Greenfield vena cava filter: percutaneous introduction Radiology May 1984;151(2):525-6

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC Twenty-year clinical experience with the Greenfield filter Cardiovasc Surg Apr 1995;3(2):199-205

Kantor A, Glanz S, Gordon DH, Sclafani SJ Percutaneous insertion of the Kimray-Greenfield filter: incidence of femoral vein thrombosis AJR Am J Roentgenol Nov 1987;149(5):1065-6

Proctor MC, Greenfield LJ, Cho KJ, et al Assessment of apparent vena caval penetration by the Greenfield filter J Endovasc Surg Aug 1998;5(3):251-8

Greenfield LJ, Tauscher JR, Marx MV Evaluation of a new percutaneous stainless steel Greenfield filter by intravascular ultrasonography Surgery Jun 1991;109(6):722-9

Sweeney TJ, Van Aman ME Deployment problems with the titanium Greenfield filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Sep-Oct 1993;4(5):691-4

Johnson SP, Raiken DP, Grebe PJ, et al Single institution prospective evaluation of the over-the-wire Greenfield vena caval filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Sep-Oct 1998;9(5):766-73

Kinney TB, Rose SC, Weingarten KE, et al IVC filter tilt and asymmetry: comparison of the over-the-wire stainless-steel and titanium Greenfield IVC filters J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov-Dec 1997;8(6):1029-37

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, Michaels AJ, Taheri PA Prophylactic vena caval filters in trauma: the rest of the story J Vasc Surg Sep 2000;32(3):490-5; discussion 496-7

Korbin CD, Reed RA, Taylor FC, et al Comparison of filters in an oversized vena caval phantom: intracaval placement of a bird''s nest filter versus biiliac placement of Greenfield, Vena Tech-LGM, and Simon nitinol filters J Vasc Interv Radiol Aug 1992;3(3):559-64

Wojtowycz MM, Stoehr T, Crummy AB, et al The Bird''s Nest inferior vena caval filter: review of a single-center experience J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar-Apr 1997;8(2):171-9

Roehm JO Jr, Gianturco C, Barth MH, Wright KC Percutaneous transcatheter filter for the inferior vena cava A new device for treatment of patients with pulmonary embolism Radiology Jan 1984; 150(1):255-7

Ferris EJ George W Holmes Lecture Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: correlative evaluation and therapeutic implications AJR Am J Roentgenol Dec 1992;159(6):1149-55

Thomas JH, Cornell KM, Siegel EL, et al Vena caval occlusion after bird''s nest filter placement Am J Surg Dec 1998;176(6):598-600

Nicholson AA, Ettles DF, Paddon AJ, Dyet JF Long-term follow-up of the Bird''s Nest IVC Filter Clin Radiol Nov 1999;54(11):759-64

Millward SF, Marsh JI, Peterson RA, et al LGM (Vena Tech) vena cava filter: clinical experience in 64 patients J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 1991;2(4):429-33

Reed RA, Teitelbaum GP, Taylor FC, et al Incomplete opening of LGM (Vena Tech) filters inserted via the transjugular approach J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 1991;2(4):441-5

Murphy TP, Dorfman GS, Yedlicka JW, et al LGM vena cava filter: objective evaluation of early results J Vasc Interv Radiol Feb 1991;2(1):107-15

Crochet DP, Brunel P, Trogrlic S, et al Long-term follow-up of Vena Tech-LGM filter: predictors and frequency of caval occlusion J Vasc Interv Radiol Feb 1999;10(2 Pt 1):137-42

Crochet DP, Stora O, Ferry D, et al Vena Tech-LGM filter: long-term results of a prospective study Radiology Sep 1993;188(3):857-60

Simon M, Kaplow R, Salzman E, Freiman D A vena cava filter using thermal shape memory alloy Experimental aspects Radiology Oct 1977;125(1):87-94

Poletti PA, Becker CD, Prina L, et al Long-term results of the Simon nitinol inferior vena cava filter Eur Radiol 1998;8(2):289-94

Aswad MA, Sandager GP, Pais SO, et al Early duplex scan evaluation of four vena caval interruption devices J Vasc Surg Nov 1996;24(5):809-18

Simon M, Athanasoulis CA, Kim D, et al Simon nitinol inferior vena cava filter: initial clinical experience Work in progress Radiology Jul 1989;172(1):99-103

Grassi CJ, Matsumoto AH, Teitelbaum GP Vena caval occlusion after Simon nitinol filter placement: identification with MR imaging in patients with malignancy J Vasc Interv Radiol Aug 1992;3(3):535-9

Davison BD, Grassi CJ TrapEase inferior vena cava filter placed via the basilic arm vein: a new antecubital access J Vasc Interv Radiol Jan 2002;13(1):107-9

Stone PA, Aburahma AF, Hass SM, Hofeldt MJ, Zimmerman WB, Deel JT, et al TrapEase inferior vena cava filter placement: use of the subclavian vein Vasc Endovascular Surg Nov-Dec 2004;38(6):505-9

Rousseau H, Perreault P, Otal P, et al The 6-F nitinol TrapEase inferior vena cava filter: results of a prospective multicenter trial J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar 2001;12(3):299-304

Rousseau H, Perreault P, Otal P, Stockx L, Golzarian J, Oliva V, et al The 6-F nitinol TrapEase inferior vena cava filter: results of a prospective multicenter trial J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar 2001;12(3):299-304

Kalva SP, Wicky S, Waltman AC, Athanasoulis CA TrapEase vena cava filter: experience in 751 patients J Endovasc Ther Jun 2006;13(3):365-72

Cantwell CP, Lynch FC Caudal migration of a G2 filter during carbon dioxide cavography J Vasc Interv Radiol Jun 2007;18(6):814-5

Kim HS, Young MJ, Narayan AK, Hong K, Liddell RP, Streiff MB A comparison of clinical outcomes with retrievable and permanent inferior vena cava filters J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar 2008;19(3):393-9

Kuo WT, Loh CT, Sze DY Emergency retrieval of a G2 filter after complete migration into the right ventricle J Vasc Interv Radiol Sep 2007;18(9):1177-82

Bui JT, West DL, Pinto C, Gramling-Babb P, Owens CA Right ventricular migration and endovascular removal of an inferior vena cava filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Jan 2008;19(1):141-4

Berczi V, Bottomley JR, Thomas SM, Taneja S, Gaines PA, Cleveland TJ Long-term retrievability of IVC filters: should we abandon permanent devices? Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Sep-Oct 2007; 30 (5): 820-7

Günther RW, Neuerburg J, Mossdorf A, Pfeffer J, Høj AR, Mølgaard-Nielsen A, et al New optional IVC filter for percutaneous retrieval--in vitro evaluation of embolus capturing efficiency Rofo May 2005; 177(5): 632-6

Janne d'Othée B, Faintuch S, Reedy AW, Nickerson CF, Rosen MP Retrievable versus permanent caval filter procedures: when are they cost-effective for interventional radiology? J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar 2008;19(3):384-92

Kaufman JA, Kinney TB, Streiff MB, Sing RF, Proctor MC, Becker D, et al Guidelines for the use of retrievable and convertible vena cava filters: report from the Society of Interventional Radiology multidisciplinary consensus conference J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar 2006;17(3):449-59

Mahrer A, Zippel D, Garniek A, Golan G, Bensaid P, Simon D, et al Retrievable Vena Cava Filters in Major Trauma Patients: Prevalence of Thrombus Within the Filter Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Feb 5 2008;

Oliva VL, Perreault P, Giroux MF, Bouchard L, Therasse E, Soulez G Recovery g2 inferior vena cava filter: technical success and safety of retrieval J Vasc Interv Radiol Jun 2008;19(6):884-9

Pellerin O, Barral FG, Lions C, Novelli L, Beregi JP, Sapoval M Early and Late Retrieval of the ALN Removable Vena Cava Filter: Results from a Multicenter Study Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol May 21 2008;

Strauss EJ, Egol KA, Alaia M, Hansen D, Bashar M, Steiger D The use of retrievable inferior vena cava filters in orthopaedic patients J Bone Joint Surg Br May 2008;90(5):662-7

Decousus H, Leizorovicz A, Parent F, et al A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis Prevention du Risque d''Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave Study Group N Engl J Med Feb 12 1998;338(7):409-15

Buecker A, Behrendt FF, Knüchel R, Kinzel S, Mølgaard-Nielsen A, Neuerburg J, et al Long-term retrieval of modified Günther Tulip vena cava Filters: an animal study Invest Radiol Oct 2007;42(10):692-6

De Gregorio MA, Gamboa P, Bonilla DL, Sanchez M, Higuera MT, Medrano J, et al Retrieval of Gunther Tulip optional vena cava filters 30 days after implantation: a prospective clinical study J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 2006;17(11 Pt 1):1781-9

de Gregorio MA, Gamboa P, Gimeno MJ, Madariaga B, Tobío R, Herrera M, et al The Günther Tulip retrievable filter: prolonged temporary filtration by repositioning within the inferior vena cava J Vasc Interv Radiol Oct 2003;14(10):1259-65

Hoppe H, Nutting CW, Smouse HR, Vesely TM, Pohl C, Bettmann MA, et al Günther Tulip filter retrievability multicenter study including CT follow-up: final report J Vasc Interv Radiol Jun 2006;17(6):1017-23

Looby S, Given MF, Geoghegan T, McErlean A, Lee MJ Gunther Tulip retrievable inferior vena caval filters: indications, efficacy, retrieval, and complications Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Jan-Feb 2007;30(1):59-65

Ota S, Yamada N, Tsuji A, Ishikura K, Nakamura M, Isaka N, et al The Günther-Tulip retrievable IVC filter: clinical experience in 118 consecutive patients Circ J Feb 2008;72(2):287-92

Ray CE Jr, Mitchell E, Zipser S, Kao EY, Brown CF, Moneta GL Outcomes with retrievable inferior vena cava filters: a multicenter study J Vasc Interv Radiol Oct 2006;17(10):1595-604

Rosenthal D, Wellons ED, Hancock SM, Burkett AB Retrievability of the Günther Tulip vena cava filter after dwell times longer than 180 days in patients with multiple trauma J Endovasc Ther Jun 2007;14(3):406-10

Van Ha TG, Chien AS, Funaki BS, Lorenz J, Piano G, Shen M, et al Use of retrievable compared to permanent inferior vena cava filters: a single-institution experience Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Mar-Apr 2008;31(2):308-15

Wicky S, Doenz F, Meuwly JY, Portier F, Schnyder P, Denys A Clinical experience with retrievable Günther Tulip vena cava filters J Endovasc Ther Oct 2003;10(5):994-1000

Yamagami T, Kato T, Hirota T, Yoshimatsu R, Matsumoto T, Nishimura T Evaluation of retrievability of the Gunther tulip vena cava filter Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Mar-Apr 2007;30(2):226-31

Sag AA, Stavas JM, Burke CT, Dixon RG, Marquess JS, Mauro MA Analysis of tilt of the Günther Tulip filter J Vasc Interv Radiol May 2008;19(5):669-76

Asch MR Initial experience in humans with a new retrievable inferior vena cava filter Radiology Dec 2002; 225(3):835-44

Grande WJ, Trerotola SO, Reilly PM, Clark TW, Soulen MC, Patel A, et al Experience with the recovery filter as a retrievable inferior vena cava filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Sep 2005;16(9):1189-93

Kim D, Schlam BW, Porter DH, Simon M Insertion of the Simon nitinol caval filter: value of the antecubital vein approach AJR Am J Roentgenol Sep 1991;157(3):521-2

Keller IS, Meier C, Pfiffner R, Keller E, Pfammatter T Clinical comparison of two optional vena cava filters J Vasc Interv Radiol Apr 2007;18(4):505-11

Oliva VL, Szatmari F, Giroux MF, Flemming BK, Cohen SA, Soulez G The Jonas study: evaluation of the retrievability of the Cordis OptEase inferior vena cava filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 2005;16(11):1439-45; quiz 1445

Rosenthal D, Swischuk JL, Cohen SA, Wellons ED OptEase retrievable inferior vena cava filter: initial multicenter experience Vascular Sep-Oct 2005;13(5):286-9

Sadaf A, Rasuli P, Olivier A, Hadziomerovic A, French GJ, Aquino J, et al Significant caval penetration by the celect inferior vena cava filter: attributable to filter design? J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 2007; 18 (11): 1447-50

Aburahma AF, Sadler DL, Robinson PA Axillary subclavian vein thrombosis Changing patterns of etiology, diagnostic, and therapeutic modalities Am Surg Feb 1991;57(2):101-7 American College of Chest Physicians Opinions regarding the diagnosis and management of venous thromboembolic disease ACCP Consensus Committee on Pulmonary Embolism American College of Chest Physicians Chest Feb 1998;113(2):499-504

Arrive L, Menu Y, Dessarts I, et al Diagnosis of abdominal venous thrombosis by means of spin-echo and gradient-echo MR imaging: analysis with receiver operating characteristic curves Radiology Dec 1991;181(3):661-8

Ascer E, Gennaro M, Lorensen E, Pollina RM Superior vena caval Greenfield filters: indications, techniques, and results J Vasc Surg Mar 1996;23(3):498-503 Awh MH, Taylor FC, Lu CT Spontaneous fracture of a Vena-Tech inferior vena caval filter AJR Am J Roentgenol Jul 1991;157(1):177-8

Barth KH, Matsumoto AH Patient care in interventional radiology: a perspective Radiology Jan 1991;178(1):11-7

Benjamin ME, Sandager GP, Cohn EJ Jr, et al Duplex ultrasound insertion of inferior vena cava filters in multitrauma patients Am J Surg Aug 1999;178(2):92-7

Black MD, French GJ, Rasuli P, Bouchard AC Upper extremity deep venous thrombosis Underdiagnosed and potentially lethal Chest Jun 1993;103(6):1887-90

Bonn J, Liu JB, Eschelman DJ, et al Intravascular ultrasound as an alternative to positive-contrast vena cavography prior to filter placement J Vasc Interv Radiol Jul-Aug 1999;10(7):843-9

Bonnichon P, Gaudard F, Lecam B, et al Biometry of the infrarenal inferior vena cava measured by computed tomography Clinical applications Surg Radiol Anat 1992;14(3):265-9

Boyd-Kranis R, Sullivan KL, Eschelman DJ, et al Accuracy and safety of carbon dioxide inferior vena cavography J Vasc Interv Radiol Oct 1999;10(9):1183-9

Brasel KJ, Borgstrom DC, Weigelt JA Cost-effective prevention of pulmonary embolus in high-risk trauma patients J Trauma Mar 1997;42(3):456-60; discussion 460-2

Brown DB, Labuski MR, Cardella JF, et al Determination of inferior vena cava diameter in the angiography suite: comparison of three common methods J Vasc Interv Radiol Feb 1999;10(2 Pt 1):143-7

Browne RJ, Estrada FP Guidewire entrapment during Greenfield filter deployment J Vasc Surg Jan 1998;27(1):174-6

Buerger PM, Peoples JB, Lemmon GW, McCarthy MC Risk of pulmonary emboli in patients with pelvic fractures Am Surg Aug 1993;59(8):505-8

Cho KJ, Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, et al Evaluation of a new percutaneous stainless steel Greenfield filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar-Apr 1997;8(2):181-7

Cohen JR, Grella L, Citron M Greenfield filter instead of heparin as primary treatment for deep venous thrombosis or pulmonary embolism in patients with cancer Cancer Oct 1 1992;70(7):1993-6

Corriere MA, Sauve KJ, Ayerdi J, Craven BL, Stafford JM, Geary RL, et al Vena cava filters and inferior vena cava thrombosis J Vasc Surg Apr 2007;45(4):789-94

Couch GG, Johnston KW, Ojha M An in vitro comparison of the hemodynamics of two inferior vena cava filters J Vasc Surg Mar 2000;31(3):539-49

Cronan JJ Venous thromboembolic disease: the role of US Radiology Mar 1993;186(3):619-30

Dennis JW, Menawat S, Von Thron J, et al Efficacy of deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis in trauma patients and identification of high-risk groups J Trauma Jul 1993;35(1):132-8; discussion 138-9

Domingo ML, Marti-Bonmati L, Dosda R, Pallardo Y Interobserver agreement in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism with helical CT Eur J Radiol May 2000;34(2):136-40

Dorfman GS Percutaneous inferior vena caval filters Radiology Mar 1990;174(3 Pt 2):987-92

Drucker EA, Rivitz SM, Shepard JA, et al Acute pulmonary embolism: assessment of helical CT for diagnosis Radiology Oct 1998;209(1):235-41

Engmann E, Asch MR Clinical experience with the antecubital Simon nitinol IVC filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Sep-Oct 1998;9(5):774-8

Ferris DJ, Shah HR The inferior vena cava In: Baum S, ed Abrams' Angiography Vol 2 4th ed Boston: Little Brown Co;1997:932-74

Ferris EJ, McCowan TC, Carver DK, McFarland DR Percutaneous inferior vena caval filters: follow-up of seven designs in 320 patients Radiology Sep 1993;188(3):851-6

Friedland M, Kazmers A, Kline R, et al Vena cava duplex imaging before caval interruption J Vasc Surg Oct 1996;24(4):608-12; discussion 612-3

Goldhaber SZ Pulmonary embolism N Engl J Med Jul 9 1998;339(2):93-104

Goodman LR, Lipchik RJ Diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism: time for a new approach Radiology Apr 1996;199(1):25-7

Goodman LR, Lipchik RJ, Kuzo RS, et al Subsequent pulmonary embolism: risk after a negative helical CT pulmonary angiogram--prospective comparison with scintigraphy Radiology May 2000;215(2):535-42

Gordon AC, Saliken JC, Johns D, et al US-guided puncture of the internal jugular vein: complications and anatomic considerations J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar-Apr 1998;9(2):333-8

Gosin JS, Graham AM, Ciocca RG, Hammond JS Efficacy of prophylactic vena cava filters in high-risk trauma patients Ann Vasc Surg Jan 1997;11(1):100-5

Grassi CJ, Swan TL, Cardella JF, Meranze SG, Oglevie SB, Omary RA, et al Quality improvement guidelines for percutaneous permanent inferior vena cava filter placement for the prevention of pulmonary embolism J Vasc Interv Radiol Sep 2003;14(9 Pt 2):S271-5

Greenfield LJ The PREPIC Study Group Eight-year follow-up of patients with permanent vena cava filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism: the PREPIC (Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave) Randomized Study Perspect Vasc Surg Endovasc Ther Jun 2006;18(2):187-8

Greenfield LJ, Cho KJ, Proctor M, et al Results of a multicenter study of the modified hook-titanium Greenfield filter J Vasc Surg Sep 1991;14(3):253-7

Greenfield LJ, Cho KJ, Proctor MC, et al Late results of suprarenal Greenfield vena cava filter placement Arch Surg Aug 1992;127(8):969-73

Greenfield LJ, Cho KJ, Tauscher JR Evolution of hook design for fixation of the titanium Greenfield filter J Vasc Surg Sep 1990;12(3):345-53

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC Experimental embolic capture by asymmetric Greenfield filters J Vasc Surg Sep 1992;16(3):436-43; discussion 443-4

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC Recurrent thromboembolism in patients with vena cava filters J Vasc Surg Mar 2001;33(3):510-4

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC Suprarenal filter placement J Vasc Surg Sep 1998;28(3):432-8; discussion 438

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, Cho KJ, et al Extended evaluation of the titanium Greenfield vena caval filter J Vasc Surg Sep 1994;20(3):458-64; discussion 464-5

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, Cho KJ, Wakefield TW Limb asymmetry in titanium Greenfield filters: clinically significant? J Vasc Surg Nov 1997;26(5):770-5

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, Roberts KR An improved process for development and testing of vena caval filters: the percutaneous steel Greenfield filter Surgery Jan 1997;121(1):50-7

Greenfield LJ, Proctor MC, Saluja A Clinical results of Greenfield filter use in patients with cancer Cardiovasc Surg Apr 1997;5(2):145-9

Hammer FD, Rousseau HP, Joffre FG, et al In vitro evaluation of vena cava filters J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov-Dec 1994;5(6):869-76

Harker LA Antithrombotic therapy, In: Goldman L, Bennett JC, eds Cecil Textbook of Medicine 21st ed WB Saunders Co;2000:1021-8

Hirsch DR, Ingenito EP, Goldhaber SZ Prevalence of deep venous thrombosis among patients in medical intensive care JAMA Jul 26 1995;274(4):335-7

Hoffmann U, Schima W, Herold C Pulmonary magnetic resonance angiography Eur Radiol 1999;9(9):1745-54

Hull RD Peripheral vascular disease In: Goldman L, Bennett JC, eds Cecil Textbook of Medicine 21st ed WB Saunders Co;2000:367-72

Kaufman JA, Thomas JW, Geller SC, et al Guide-wire entrapment by inferior vena caval filters: in vitro evaluation Radiology Jan 1996;198(1):71-6

Kaufman JA, Waltman AC, Rivitz SM, Geller SG Anatomical observations on the renal veins and inferior vena cava at magnetic resonance angiography Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol May-Jun 1995;18(3):153-7

Kaura DR, Gray RR, Sadler DJ, et al Value of frontal caval measurement in the placement of inferior vena cava filters Can Assoc Radiol J Oct 1999;50(5):301-5

Khansarinia S, Dennis JW, Veldenz HC, et al Prophylactic Greenfield filter placement in selected high-risk trauma patients J Vasc Surg Sep 1995;22(3):231-5; discussion 235-6

Kiproff PM, Deeb ZL, Contractor FM, Khoury MB Magnetic resonance characteristics of the LGM vena cava filter: technical note Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Jul-Aug 1991;14(4):254-5

Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA, Poggi J Risk of pulmonary embolism and/or deep venous thrombosis in Asian- Americans Am J Cardiol Jun 1 2000;85(11):1334-7

Korbin CD, Reed RA, Taylor FC, et al In vitro flow phantom analysis and clot-capturing ability of incompletely opened Vena Tech-LGM vena caval filters Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Jan- Feb 1993;16(1):3-6

Langan EM 3rd, Miller RS, Casey WJ 3rd, et al Prophylactic inferior vena cava filters in trauma patients at high risk: follow-up examination and risk/benefit assessment J Vasc Surg Sep 1999;30(3):484-88

LaPlante JS, Contractor FM, Kiproff PM, Khoury MB Migration of the Simon nitinol vena cava filter to the chest AJR Am J Roentgenol Feb 1993;160(2):385-6

Leask RL, Johnston KW, Ojha M Hemodynamic effects of clot entrapment in the TrapEase inferior vena cava filter J Vasc Interv Radiol May 2004;15(5):485-90

Levine MN, Gent M, Hirsh J, et al Ardeparin (low-molecular-weight heparin) vs graduated compression stockings for the prevention of venous thromboembolism A randomized trial in patients undergoing knee surgery Arch Intern Med Apr 22 1996;156(8):851-6

Lewis BD, James EM, Welch TJ, et al Diagnosis of acute deep venous thrombosis of the lower extremities: prospective evaluation of color Doppler flow imaging versus venography Radiology Sep 1994;192(3):651-5

Matchett WJ, Jones MP, McFarland DR, Ferris EJ Suprarenal vena caval filter placement: follow-up of four filter types in 22 patients J Vasc Interv Radiol Jul-Aug 1998;9(4):588-93

Mayo JR, Remy-Jardin M, Muller NL, et al Pulmonary embolism: prospective comparison of spiral CT with ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy Radiology Nov 1997;205(2):447-52

McCowan TC, Ferris EJ, Carver DK Complications of the nitinol vena caval filter J Vasc Interv Radiol May 1992;3(2):401-8

McCowan TC, Ferris EJ, Carver DK, Harshfield DL Use of external jugular vein as a route for percutaneous inferior vena caval filter placement Radiology Aug 1990;176(2):527-30

McCowan TC, Ferris EJ, Carver DK, Molpus WM Inferior vena caval filter thrombi: evaluation with intravascular US Radiology Dec 1990;177(3):783-8

McMurtry AL, Owings JT, Anderson JT, et al Increased use of prophylactic vena cava filters in trauma patients failed to decrease overall incidence of pulmonary embolism J Am Coll Surg Sep 1999;189(3):314-20

Menzoian JO, LoGerfo FW, Doyle JE, et al Technical modifications in the placement of inferior vena caval filter devices Am J Surg Aug 1981;142(2):216-8

Millward SF, Aquino J Jr, Peterson RA Oversized inferior vena cava: use of a single Vena Tech--LGM filter Can Assoc Radiol J Aug 1996;47(4):272-4

Millward SF, Peterson RA, Moher D, et al LGM (Vena Tech) vena caval filter: experience at a single institution J Vasc Interv Radiol Mar-Apr 1994;5(2):351-6

Nunn CR, Neuzil D, Naslund T, et al Cost-effective method for bedside insertion of vena caval filters in trauma patients J Trauma Nov 1997;43(5):752-8

O''Malley KF, Ross SE Pulmonary embolism in major trauma patients J Trauma Jun 1990;30(6):748-50

Oppat WF, Chiou AC, Matsumura JS Intravascular ultrasound-guided vena cava filter placement J Endovasc Surg Aug 1999;6(3):285-7

Pena CS, et al Initial experience with the Trapease inferior vena cava filter J Vasc Interv Radiol 2001;12:S139

Quinn DA, Thompson BT, Terrin ML, et al A prospective investigation of pulmonary embolism in women and men JAMA Oct 7 1992;268(13):1689-96

Reed RA, Teitelbaum GP, Taylor FC, et al Use of the Bird''s Nest filter in oversized inferior venae cavae J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 1991;2(4):447-50

Remy-Jardin M, Remy J Spiral CT angiography of the pulmonary circulation Radiology Sep 1999;212(3):615-36

Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Artaud D, et al Spiral CT of pulmonary embolism: diagnostic approach, interpretive pitfalls and current indications Eur Radiol 1998;8(8):1376-90

Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Wattinne L, Giraud F Central pulmonary thromboembolism: diagnosis with spiral volumetric CT with the single-breath-hold technique--comparison with pulmonary angiography Radiology Nov 1992;185(2):381-7

Ricco JB, Dubreuil F, Reynaud P, et al The LGM Vena-Tech caval filter: results of a multicenter study Ann Vasc Surg 1995;9 Suppl:S89-100

Roditi GH, Buff BL, Longmaid HE MR venography of left renal vein anomalies Clin Radiol Dec 1996;51(12):861-4

Rodriguez JL, Lopez JM, Proctor MC, et al Early placement of prophylactic vena caval filters in injured patients at high risk for pulmonary embolism J Trauma May 1996;40(5):797-802; discussion 802-4

Roehm JO Jr, Thomas JW The twist technique: a method to minimize wire prolapse during Bird''s Nest filter placement J Vasc Interv Radiol May-Jun 1995;6(3):455-9

Rogers FB, Shackford SR, Ricci MA, et al Prophylactic vena cava filter insertion in selected high-risk orthopaedic trauma patients J Orthop Trauma May 1997;11(4):267-72

Rogers FB, Shackford SR, Wilson J, et al Prophylactic vena cava filter insertion in severely injured trauma patients: indications and preliminary results J Trauma Oct 1993;35(4):637-41; discussion 641-2

Rogoff PA, Hilgenberg AD, Miller SL, Stephan SM Cephalic migration of the bird''s nest inferior vena caval filter: report of two cases Radiology Sep 1992;184(3):819-22

Rosenthal D, Wellons ED, Levitt AB, Shuler FW, O'Conner RE, Henderson VJ Role of prophylactic temporary inferior vena cava filters placed at the ICU bedside under intravascular ultrasound guidance in patients with multiple trauma J Vasc Surg Nov 2004;40(5):958-64

Rousseau HP, Perreault P, Otal P, et al First clinical experience with a new 6F nitinol inferior vena cava filter: results from a European multicenter trial J Vasc Interv Radiol 2000;11:196

Ruiz AJ, Hill SL, Berry RE Heparin, deep venous thrombosis, and trauma patients Am J Surg Aug 1991;162(2):159-62

Sato DT, Robinson KD, Gregory RT, et al Duplex directed caval filter insertion in multi-trauma and critically ill patients Ann Vasc Surg Jul 1999; 13 (4): 365-71

Savader SJ, Gomez-Jorge J Peripheral and central deep vein thrombosis, In: Savader SJ, Trerotola SO, eds Venous Interventional Radiology with Clinical Perspectives 2nd ed New York: Thieme;2000:431-57

Savader SJ, Ronsivalle JA Permanent inferior vena cava filters In: Savader SJ, Trerotola SO eds, Venous interventional Radiology with Clinical Perspectives 2nd ed New York: Thieme;2000:511-27

Schanzer H, Schanzer A Guidewire entrapment during deployment of the over-the-guidewire stainless steel Greenfield filter: a device design-related complication J Vasc Surg Mar 2000;31(3):607-10

Schutzer R, Ascher E, Hingorani A, Jacob T, Kallakuri S Preliminary results of the new 6F TrapEase inferior vena cava filter Ann Vasc Surg Jan 2003;17(1):103-6

Shi HJ, Huang YH, Shen T, Xu Q Percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy combined with catheter-directed thrombolysis in the treatment of symptomatic lower extremity deep venous thrombosis Eur J Radiol Jun 2 2008;

Shlansky-Goldberg R, Wing CM, LeVeen RF, Cope C Effectiveness of a prolapsed bird''s nest filter J Vasc Interv Radiol Jul-Aug 1993;4(4):505-11

Silverstein MD, Heit JA, Mohr DN, et al Trends in the incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a 25-year population-based study Arch Intern Med Mar 23 1998;158(6):585-93

Simon M, Rabkin DJ, Kleshinski S, et al Comparative evaluation of clinically available inferior vena cava filters with an in vitro physiologic simulation of the vena cava Radiology Dec 1993;189(3):769-74

Sing RF, Cicci CK, Smith CH, Messick WJ Bedside insertion of inferior vena cava filters in the intensive care unit J Trauma Dec 1999;47(6):1104-7

Soler R, Rodriguez E, Lopez MF, Marini M MR imaging in inferior vena cava thrombosis Eur J Radiol Jan 1995;19(2):101-7

Spain DA, Richardson JD, Polk HC Jr, et al Venous thromboembolism in the high-risk trauma patient: do risks justify aggressive screening and prophylaxis? J Trauma Mar 1997;42(3):463-7; discussion 467-9

Spence LD, Gironta MG, Malde HM, et al Acute upper extremity deep venous thrombosis: safety and effectiveness of superior vena caval filters Radiology Jan 1999;210(1):53-8

Spencer FC, et al Plication of the IVC for pulmonary embolism: a report of 20 cases Ann Surg 1962;155:827

Starok MS, Common AA Follow-up after insertion of Bird''s Nest inferior vena caval filters Can Assoc Radiol J Jun 1996;47(3):189-94

Stein PD, Alnas M, Skaf E, Kayali F, Siddiqui T, Olson RE, et al Outcome and complications of retrievable inferior vena cava filters Am J Cardiol Oct 15 2004;94(8):1090-3

Taylor FC, Awh MH, Kahn CE Jr, Lu CT Vena Tech vena cava filter: experience and early follow-up J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 1991;2(4):435-40

Teitelbaum GP, McKay RH, Katz MD Bird''s nest filter placement within an enlarged hemiazygos vein for prevention of pulmonary embolism Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol Mar-Apr 1993;16(2):119-21

Terhaar OA, Lyon SM, Given MF, Foster AE, Mc Grath F, Lee MJ Extended interval for retrieval of Günther Tulip filters J Vasc Interv Radiol Nov 2004; 15 (11): 1257-62

Tola JC, Holtzman R, Lottenberg L Bedside placement of inferior vena cava filters in the intensive care unit Am Surg Sep 1999;65(9):833-7; discussion 837-8

van Beek EJ, Kuijer PM, Buller HR, et al The clinical course of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism Arch Intern Med Dec 8-22 1997;157(22):2593-8

Van Natta TL, Morris JA Jr, Eddy VA, et al Elective bedside surgery in critically injured patients is safe and cost-effective Ann Surg May 1998;227(5):618-24; discussion 624-6

van Rossum AB, Pattynama PM, Mallens WM, et al Can helical CT replace scintigraphy in the diagnostic process in suspected pulmonary embolism? A retrolective-prolective cohort study focusing on total diagnostic yield Eur Radiol 1998;8(1):90-6

Vesely T, Darcy M, Picus D, Hicks M Technical problems associated with placement of the Bird''s Nest inferior vena cava filter AJR Am J Roentgenol Apr 1992;158(4):875-80

Vrachliotis TG, Rabkin DJ, Lang EV In vitro capturing characteristics of the Trapease filter J Vasc Interv Radiol 2001;12:S78

Warkentin TE, Kelton JG A 14-year study of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia Am J Med Nov 1996;101(5):502-7

Warkentin TE, Sikov WM, Lillicrap DP Multicentric warfarin-induced skin necrosis complicating heparin- induced thrombocytopenia Am J Hematol Sep 1999; 62(1):44-8

West DL, Bui JT, Hanhan S, Owens CA Percutaneous retrieval of a vena tech LP filter after failure of filter opening J Vasc Interv Radiol Apr 2006; 17(4):739-41

White KE, McLean GK Bird''s nest filter: inferior strut migration during massive thromboembolization J Vasc Interv Radiol Jul-Aug 1996;7(4):537-40

Wittenberg G, Kueppers V, Tschammler A, et al Long-term results of vena cava filters: experiences with the LGM and the Titanium Greenfield devices Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol May-Jun 1998;21(3):225-9

Woodard PK CT scan negative for pulmonary embolism: where do we go from here? Radiology May 2000;215(2):325-6

Xenos ES, Minion DJ, Sorial EE, Endean ED Endovascular retrieval of an intraaortic greenfield vena cava filter Vasc Endovascular Surg Apr-May 2008;42(2):165-7

Zeni PT Jr, Roberts JA, Price M, et al Titanium Greenfield filter placement: a retrospective analysis of filter tilting comparing access by right internal jugular vein with right femoral vein AJR Am J Roentgenol Sep 1997;169(3):739-41