Carotenoid

Overview


Carotenoids are organic pigments that are naturally occurring in plants and some other photosynthetic organisms like algae, some types of fungus and some bacteria. There are over 600 known carotenoids; they are split into two classes, xanthophylls and carotenes. They absorb blue light.

Properties
Carotenoids belong to the category of tetraterpenoids (i.e. they contain 40 carbon atoms). Structurally they are in the form of a polyene chain which is sometimes terminated by rings.
 * Carotenoids with molecules containing oxygen, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, are known as xanthophylls.
 * The unoxygenated (oxygen free) carotenoids such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene are known as carotenes. Carotenes typically contain only carbon and hydrogen.

Probably the most well-known carotenoid is the one that gives this second group its name, carotene, found in carrots and responsible for their bright orange colour. Crude palm oil, however, is the richest source of carotenoids in nature.

Their colour, ranging from pale yellow through bright orange to deep red, is directly linked to their structure. Xanthophylls are often yellow, hence their class name. The double carbon-carbon bonds interact with each other in a process called conjugation, which allows electrons in the molecule to move freely across these areas of the molecule. As the number of double bonds increases, electrons associated with conjugated systems have more room to move, and require less energy to change states. This causes the range of energies of light absorbed by the molecule to decrease. As more frequencies of light are absorbed from the short end of the visible spectrum, the compounds acquire an increasingly red appearance.

Physiological effects
In photosynthetic organisms, carotenoids play a vital role in the photosynthetic reaction centre. They either participate in the energy-transfer process, or protect the reaction center from auto-oxidation. In non-photosynthesizing organisms, carotenoids have been linked to oxidation-preventing mechanisms. Carotenoids have many physiological functions. Given their structure (above) carotenoids are efficient free-radical scavengers, and they enhance the vertebrate immune system. Consequently, epidemiological studies have shown that people with high beta-carotene intake and high plasma levels of beta-carotene have a significantly reduced risk of lung cancer. But studies of supplementation with large doses of beta-carotene in smokers have shown an increase in cancer risk (possibly because excessive beta-carotene results in breakdown products that reduce plasma vitamin A and worsen the lung cell proliferation induced by smoke). Similar results have been found in other animals.

Animals are incapable of synthesizing carotenoids, and must obtain them through their diet, yet they are common and often in ornamental features. For example, the pink colour of flamingos and salmon, and the red colouring of lobsters are due to carotenoids. It has been proposed that carotenoids are used in ornamental traits because, given their physiological and chemical properties, they can be used as honest indicators of individual health, and hence they can be used by animals when selecting potential mates. The most common carotenoids include lycopene and the vitamin A precursor β-carotene. In plants, the xanthophyll lutein is the most abundant carotenoid and its role in preventing age-related eye disease is currently under investigation. Lutein and the other carotenoid pigments found in leaves are not obvious because of the presence of other pigments such as chlorophyll.

Aroma chemicals
Products of carotenoid degradation such as ionones, damascones, and damascenones are also important fragrance chemicals that are used extensively in the perfumes and fragrance industry. Both beta-damascenone and beta-ionone although low in concentration in rose distillates are the key odour-contributing compounds in flowers. In fact, the sweet floral smells present in black tea, aged tobacco, grape, and many fruits are due to the aromatics compounds resulting from carotenoid breakdown.