Atenolol pharmacokinetics and molecular data

Atenolol pharmacokinetics and molecular data
Description The molecular and structural formulas Clinical Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism Pharmacodynamics Atenolol in Geriatric Pharmacology

Description
Atenolol, a synthetic, beta1-selective (cardioselective) adrenoreceptor blocking agent, may be chemically described as benzeneacetamide, 4 -[2'-hydroxy-3'-[(1-methylethyl) amino] propoxy]-.

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The molecular and structural formulas
C14H22N2O3 M.W. (free base) 266.34

It is a relatively polar hydrophilic compound with a water solubility of 26.5 mg/mL at 37oC and a log partition coefficient (octanol/water) of 0.23. It is freely soluble in 1N HCl (300 mg/mL at 25oC) and less soluble in chloroform (3 mg/mL at 25oC).

Each tablet, for oral administration, contains 25 mg, 50 mg or 100 mg of Atenolol. In addition, each tablet contains the following inactive ingredients:


 * 1) magnesium stearate,
 * 2) microcrystalline cellulose,
 * 3) povidone,
 * 4) sodium starch glycolate.

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Clinical Pharmacology
Atenolol is a beta1-selective (cardioselective) beta-adrenergic receptor blocking agent without membrane stabilizing or intrinsic sympathomimetic (partial agonist) activities.

This preferential effect is not absolute, however, and at higher doses, Atenolol inhibits beta2-adrenoreceptors, chiefly located in the bronchial and vascular musculature.

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Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism
In man, absorption of an oral dose is rapid and consistent but incomplete. Approximately 50% of an oral dose is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, the remainder being excreted unchanged in the feces. Peak blood levels are reached between two and four hours after ingestion. Unlike propranolol or metoprolol, but like nadolol, Atenolol undergoes little or no metabolism by the liver, and the absorbed portion is eliminated primarily by renal excretion. Over 85% of an intravenous dose is excreted in urine within 24 hours compared with approximately 50% for an oral dose.

Atenolol also differs from propranolol in that only a small amount (6% to 16%) is bound to proteins in the plasma. This kinetic profile results in relatively consistent plasma drug levels with about a fourfold interpatient variation.

The elimination half-life of oral Atenolol is approximately 6 to 7 hours, and there is no alteration of the kinetic profile of the drug by chronic administration. Following intravenous administration, peak plasma levels are reached within 5 minutes.

Declines from peak levels are rapid (5 to 10 fold) during the first 7 hours; thereafter, plasma levels decay with a half-life similar to that of orally administered drug.

Following oral doses of 50 mg or 100 mg, both beta blocking and antihypertensive effects persist for at least 24 hours. When renal function is impaired, elimination of Atenolol is closely related to the glomerular filtration rate; significant accumulation occurs when the creatinine clearance falls below 35 mL/min/1.73 m2.

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Pharmacodynamics
In standard animal or human pharmacological tests, beta-adrenoreceptor blocking activity of Atenolol has been demonstrated by:

(1) reduction in resting and exercise heart rate and cardiac output,

(2) reduction of systolic and diastolic blood pressure at rest and on exercise,

(3) inhibition of isoproterenol induced tachycardia, and

(4) reduction in reflex orthostatic tachycardia.

A significant beta blocking effect of Atenolol, as measured by reduction of exercise tachycardia, is apparent within one hour following oral administration of a single dose. This effect is maximal at about 2 to 4 hours, and persists for at least 24 hours. Maximum reduction in exercise tachycardia occurs within 5 minutes of an intravenous dose. For both orally and intravenously administered drug, the duration of action is dose related and also bears a linear relationship to the logarithm of plasma Atenolol concentration. The effect on exercise tachycardia of a single 10 mg intravenous dose is largely dissipated by 12 hours, whereas beta blocking activity of single oral doses of 50 mg and 100 mg is still evident beyond 24 hours following administration. However, as has been shown for all beta blocking agents, the antihypertensive effect does not appear to be related to plasma level.

In normal subjects, the beta1 selectivity of Atenolol has been shown by its reduced ability to reverse the beta2-mediated vasodilating effect of isoproterenol as compared to equivalent beta blocking doses of propranolol. In asthmatic patients, a dose of Atenolol producing a greater effect on resting heart rate than propranolol resulted in much less increase in airway resistance. In a placebo controlled comparison of approximately equipotent oral doses of several beta blockers, Atenolol produced a significantly smaller decrease of FEV1 than nonselective beta blockers such as propranolol and, unlike those agents, did not inhibit bronchodilation in response to isoproterenol.

Consistent with its negative chronotropic effect due to beta blockade of the SA node, Atenolol increases sinus cycle length and sinus node recovery time. Conduction in the AV node is also prolonged. Atenolol is devoid of membrane stabilizing activity, and increasing the dose well beyond that producing beta blockade does not further depress myocardial contractility. Several studies have demonstrated a moderate (approximately 10%) increase in stroke volume at rest and during exercise.

In controlled clinical trials, Atenolol, given as a single daily oral dose, was an effective antihypertensive agent providing 24 hour reduction of blood pressure. Atenolol has been studied in combination with thiazide-type diuretics, and the blood pressure effects of the combination are approximately additive. Atenolol is also compatible with methyldopa, hydralazine, and prazosin, each combination resulting in a larger fall in blood pressure than with the single agents. The dose range of Atenolol is narrow and increasing the dose beyond 100 mg once daily is not associated with increased antihypertensive effect. The mechanisms of the antihypertensive effects of beta blocking agents have not been established. Several possible mechanisms have been proposed and include:

(1) competitive antagonism of catecholamines at peripheral (especially cardiac) adrenergic neuron sites, leading to decreased cardiac output,

(2) a central effect leading to reduced sympathetic outflow to the periphery, and

(3) suppression of renin activity. The results from long-term studies have not shown any diminution of the antihypertensive efficacy of Atenolol with prolonged use.

By blocking the positive chronotropic and inotropic effects of catecholamines and by decreasing blood pressure, Atenolol generally reduces the oxygen requirements of the heart at any given level of effort, making it useful for many patients in the long-term management of angina pectoris. On the other hand, Atenolol can increase oxygen requirements by increasing left ventricular fiber length and end diastolic pressure, particularly in patients with heart failure.

In a multicenter clinical trial (ISIS-1) conducted in 16,027 patients with suspected myocardial infarction, patients presenting within 12 hours (mean = 5 hours) after the onset of pain were randomized to either conventional therapy plus Atenolol (n = 8,037), or conventional therapy alone (n = 7,990). Patients with a heart rate of < 50 bpm or systolic blood pressure < 100 mmHg, or with other contraindications to beta blockade were excluded. Thirty-eight percent of each group were treated within 4 hours of onset of pain. The mean time from onset of pain to entry was 5.0 ± 2.7 hours in both groups. Patients in the Atenolol group were to receive Atenolol injection 5 to 10 mg given over 5 minutes plus Atenolol tablets 50 mg every 12 hours orally on the first study day (the first oral dose administered about 15 minutes after the IV dose) followed by either Atenolol tablets 100 mg once daily or Atenolol tablets 50 mg twice daily on days 2 to 7. The groups were similar in demographic and medical history characteristics and in electrocardiographic evidence of myocardial infarction, bundle branch block, and first degree atrioventricular block at entry.

During the treatment period (days 0 to 7), the vascular mortality rates were 3.89% in the Atenolol group (313 deaths) and 4.57% in the control group (365 deaths). This absolute difference in rates, 0.68%, is statistically significant at the P < 0.05 level. The absolute difference translates into a proportional reduction of 15% (3.89 - 4.57/4.57 = -0.15). The 95% confidence limits are 1% to 27%. Most of the difference was attributed to mortality in days 0 to 1 (Atenolol - 121 deaths; control - 171 deaths).

Despite the large size of the ISIS-1 trial, it is not possible to identify clearly subgroups of patients most likely or least likely to benefit from early treatment with Atenolol. Good clinical judgment suggests, however, that patients who are dependent on sympathetic stimulation for maintenance of adequate cardiac output and blood pressure are not good candidates for beta blockade. Indeed, the trial protocol reflected that judgment by excluding patients with blood pressure consistently below 100 mmHg systolic. The overall results of the study are compatible with the possibility that patients with borderline blood pressure (less than 120 mmHg systolic), especially if over 60 years of age, are less likely to benefit.

The mechanism through which Atenolol improves survival in patients with definite or suspected acute myocardial infarction is unknown, as is the case for other beta blockers in the postinfarction setting. Atenolol, in addition to its effects on survival, has shown other clinical benefits including reduced frequency of ventricular premature beats, reduced chest pain, and reduced enzyme elevation.

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Atenolol in Geriatric Pharmacology
In general, elderly patients present higher Atenolol plasma levels with total clearance values about 50% lower than younger subjects. The half-life is markedly longer in the elderly compared to younger subjects. The reduction in Atenolol clearance follows the general trend that the elimination of renally excreted drugs is decreased with increasing age.

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