Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record

Contemporary Indigenous Traditions
There are several Modern cultures that continue to practice the application of mind altering drugs for religious purposes. Some of these cultures include the Shamans of Siberia (who employ Fly Agarics to endues hallucinations), the Huichol Indians of Mexico (who use Peyote Cactus) and Rastafarians of the Caribbean (who use marijuana).

Issues within the archaeological record
There are several issues with identifying Entheogenic drugs within an ancient society.

1. Identification of an Entheogenic substance. Was the substance smoked? Ingested?

2. Evidence of Entheogenic Inspiration within Artifacts. Does the artifact give direct evidence of drug use for Entheogenic purposes?

3. Artifact interpretation. As an observer of art that is 20,000 years old, are we seeing patterns that the original creator did not mean to create? In other words, do our own personal interests and biases alter the way we perceive artwork that may have not been intended by the author?

Archaeological Evidence of Entheogenic Drugs in Ancient Societies
Entheogenic Drugs have been used by various groups for thousands of years. There are numerous historical reports as well as modern contemporary reports of indigenous groups using entheogens. However, there is much debate as to what role entheogens have played in ancient societies and which societies did indeed use entheogens.

The New World
Mesoamerican Entheogenic drug use is the most iconic in popular consciousness. The Mayans, Olmecs, and Aztecs have well documented Entheogenic complexes. North American cultures, too, have long established traditions of entheogens.

Olmec Entheogens
The Olmec (12,000 BCE to 400 BCE) lived in Central America and are largely viewed by many as the mother culture of Aztecs and Mayans. The Olmecs left no written works on their belief structures, so many interpretations on Olmec beliefs are largely based off of interpretations of murals and artifacts. Archaeologists are lead to believe that the Olmecs used entheogens for 3 reasons. 1. Burials of Bufo Toads with priests 2. The use of entheogens in later olmec inspired cultures 3. Sculptures of Shamans and other figures have strong Therianthropic imagery.

Mayan Entheogens
The Mayans (250 BCE to 900 CE) flourished in Central America and were prevalent even till the arrival of the Spanish. The Mayan religious tradition is extremely complex and very well developed. Unlike the Olmec, the Mayans have religious texts that have survived to this day. The Mayan religion displays characteristic Mesoamerican mythology, with a strong emphasis on an individual being a communicator between the physical world and the spiritual world. Mushroom stone effigies, dated to 700 CE, give evidence that Mushrooms were at least revered in a religious way. The most direct evidence of Mayan entheogen use comes from modern descendents of the Maya, whom use entheogenic drugs today.

Aztec Entheogens
The Aztec Entheogen Complex is extremely well documented. Through historical evidence, there is proof that the Aztecs used several forms of pshycoactive drugs. These drugs include Ololiuqui (the seed of Rivea corymbosa), Tenonacatl (translated as “mushroom of the gods, a Psilocybe mushroom) and sinicuichi (a flower added to drinks). The Xochipilli statue, according to R.G. Wasson, gives the identity of several entheogenic plants. Other evidence for entheogen use of the Aztecs come from the Florentine Codex, a series of 12 books vividly describing the use of entheogenic drugs within Aztec culture and society.

North American Entheogens
There are several contemporary indigenous groups who use entheogens, most notably Native Americans of south western United States. Various tribes from California have been known to use strong alcoholic drinks as well as Peyote in order to achieve visions and religious experiences.

The Paleolithic
During the Paleolithic, there is ample evidence of drug use as seen by preserved botanical remains and coprolites. Some scholars suggest that the Shanidar Cave (a Paleolithic site in Iraq) Flower Burial shows evidence of Shamanistic Death Ritual, but these claims are still being debated. The most direct evidence we have from the Paleolithic in terms of artwork comes from Tassili, Algeria. From this region, there are several therianthropic images portraying the painter and the animals around him as one (an often cited affect of many hallucinatory drugs, Ego death). One image, in particular, shows a man who has formed into one common form with a mushroom.

There are several Paleolithic sites that display therianthropic imagery. However, there is some debate as to whether or not sites like Lascaux or Chauvet were entheogenically inspired.

Entheogenic Drugs and Major World Religions
There have been several reports stating that the Bible and the Vedas have several references to entheogenic drugs. Although most scholars largely reject these claims, they are accepted by many fringe groups.

Manna and Mushrooms
Some researchers speculate that Manna, the food that which the Israeli tribes harvest, was actually an entheogenic drug. The Bible as quoted in Exodus 16:14 reads:

“And when the dew that lay was gone up, behold, upon the face of the wilderness there lay a small round thing, as small as the hoar frost on the ground. And when the children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, It is manna: for they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them, This is the bread which the Lord hath given you to eat.”

Some point to the similarities of Psilocybe and the biblical Description of Manna as evidence.

Soma and Mushrooms
In the Vedas, the religious texts of the Hindu religion, the has been a lot of speculation on the nature of what Soma, the food of the gods, actually was. Below is a passage from the Vedas "Splendid by Law! declaring Law, truth speaking, truthful in thy works, Enouncing faith, King Soma!... O [Soma] Pavāmana, place me in that deathless, undecaying world wherein the light of heaven is set, and everlasting lustre shines.... Make me immortal in that realm where happiness and transports, where joy and felicities combine..." Scholars like R.G. Wasson and Terrence McKenna suggest that Soma is Fly Agaric, a mushroom commonly used by Siberian Shamans.